Przedmiotem artykułu jest badanie (i) utrwalonej praktyki formułowania norm generalnych i abstrakcyjnych; (ii) treści oraz celowości ustawy H.R. 815 pod kątem metodologii konstrukcyjnej tekstu, która odeszła od reguły z pkt (i). Amerykańska ustawa jest przykładem rzadko spotykanego typu aktu prawnego, w którym bezpośrednio uznano podmiot prywatny (imiennie wskazany) za zagrożenie dla państwa. Niniejsze rozważania wskazują także na geopolityczne aspekty tworzenia prawa w sytuacji realnych zagrożeń, które biorą się z tego, że wrogie podmioty nadużywają wolności i praw konstytucyjnych państw, którym chcą szkodzić. Porównano również mechanizmy nakładania kar m.in. z prawa karnego oraz administracyjnego, które są stosowane obecnie w Polsce z regulacjami ustawy H.R. 815. W artykule wykorzystano metody: formalno-dogmatyczną, komparatystyczną oraz historyczną.

This article explores the possibility of replacing the traditional administrative supervision over the gig industry in favour of regulatory instruments rooted in economy. While regulation in this sense is not uncommon in the Enlish-speaking countries, even outside infrastructural sectors, in continental Europe, administrative supervision of business still prevails. The current approach of states, including administration, legislative authorities and courts, towards the gig economy can be attributed to the misconception expressed in the EU and national court decisions presuming that companies such as Uber, offering an electronic platform, form one entity with thousands of businesses performing services such as Uber drivers. This paper asserts that regulatory authorities with their powers of correcting the anomalies of the market, are better suited for platform-based services. States should use their powers to liberalise doing business, rather than restrict new, inventive forms of business to the detriment of the customers.

The causative force of the state in the 21stcentury depends on the coherence of the law and the importance of non-legal regulations of large corporations. Multi-centricity, multi-level structure and the strength of „soft law” of corporations lead to the transformation of internal law and altering of its function. In addition states give up their welfare and privatise various tasks. They lose the essential elements of the legal, territorial and personal sovereignty. Does giving away numerous normative areas mean that the states do weaken their causative force?

The article is an attempt to analyse the relationship between private security enterprises and citizens. Explored is what access to safety information has the user of guarded premises. The paper examined the regulations of private security firms and the requirements of keeping available monitoring records. The article reviews records of interviews with employees and managers, in which their work were discussed. The material used in this article are the result of controlled experiments carried out by a student research group operating within the framework of project NCN Opus 5 and headed by prof. Jolanta Jabłońska-Bonca. Under an established scenario, in which students took on different roles, the group were able to study the tendency of security personnel to disclose information related to their work. Parts of the conversations referred to in the text have been anonymised. The authentic spelling was retained to reflect in full a profile of a given worker and to give the reader an opportunity to perceive the atmosphere of the interviewing process.

The authors – lawyers and licensed detectives – examine the topic of an ethic in detective’s profession from theoretical and practical grounds. Although the authors are well positioned to delve into theoretical aspects of this topic, thanks to their strong academic background, the key input into the research is the practical experience they have gained while performing the profession; the profession they sadly acknowledge have some imperfections as well. Based on their own experience and observations the starting point of their work is the study of detective’s profession ethos. The angle of their examination is different to a traditional approach presented in other’s publication available on the market. The authors, in an innovative and original way, claim that the detective’s ethos is a result of profession’s elitism and exclusivism. The profession’s ethos has to be examined in the light of legal grounds in the Polish law system, the Act of 6 July 2001 on detective services (O.J. 2002 No. 12, Item 110, as farther amended). An extensive analysis of the act, brought a conclusion, that detective’s profession is elite, although authors have noted that there are certain reservations on this thesis, however they have
asserted that the profession is not exclusive, which is reflected in the instances of some ethic and moral violations, the topics they strictly separate. The reason of the abovementioned shortcomings is not sufficiently stringent procedure of the profession’s recruitment, which is a consequence of an easier access to the detective’s license, granted by the Act of 13 June 2013 on deregulation of access to certain professions in Poland (O.J. 2013, Item 829), effective as of 1 January 2014. The authors call for restoration of previously existing restrictions with this regard. The authors notice as well that there is a politically-driven reluctance to empower the representatives of the private security sector, hindering the fulfilment of a social role the detectives play as the agents of public trust. The authors however do not omit in their work the acknowledgement of a good condition of polish detective sector which one can see in the comparative cross-country international examination. They point out to the benefits and opportunities stemming from this condition, partly noticed by The Polish Association of Licensed Private Investigators – the representative body of detectives in Poland, which not only became a member of The International Federation of Associations of Private Detectives but also adopted the Code of Detective’s Ethics. The former is a unique opportunity to gain
expertise from international community as well as to share its own experiences, perhaps become a European leader setting internationals standards and guidance for the detective profession; the latter, authors believe, should be perceived as the code of exemplary conduct, one which all detectives shall follow. It is worth to mention that the mentioned Code of Detective’s Ethics is unique in its own nature on the Polish market as there is no other code encompassing the topic of detective’s ethic

In accordance with art. 55 of Directive 2012/34/EU establishing a single European railway area, each Member State must establish a single regulatory authority for the railway sector. In Poland, tasks of this body are carried out by the President of the Office of Rail Transport (UTK). Changes in position and tasks of this authority are associated with implementation of Fourth Railway Package, six legal acts which means a continuation of reforms of rail market in Europe. 4th Railway Package imposes new obligations on regulators, i.e. in matters related to rail traffic management, and planned or unplanned maintenance works on the lines. In the package it is also proposed a new model of cooperation between national regulatory bodies and European Union Railway Agency. National authorities may, among others, ask European Union Railway Agency for an opinion on safety and interoperability aspects. European Union Railway Agency may also carry out a visit into a Member State. In addition, President of UTK is also polish national safety authority and is the competent authority to issue a single safety certificate. In tasks of the national safety authority, President of UTK is also obliged to cooperate with the Agency The purpose of this article is to present new obligations imposed on the Office of Rail Transport in relation to implementation of 4th railway package, in scope of both roles.

Niniejsze opracowanie stanowi analizę projektowanej ustawy o dokumentach publicznych wraz z aktami wykonawczymi. W szczególności skupiono się na kluczowych przepisach, dotyczących wykazu dokumentów publicznych i ich klasyfikacji, procesie opracowywania wzoru dokumentu oraz wyłączności udzielonej wytwórcy blankietów dokumentów pierwszej kategorii, badając wpływ analizowanych regulacji na system bezpieczeństwa dokumentów publicznych. Analiza prowadzi do wniosku, że projekt ustawy obarczony jest szeregiem istotnych mankamentów, które mogą powodować jego niezgodność z prawem UE oraz obniżać poziom bezpieczeństwa dokumentów publicznych. Mankamenty te zostały zidentyfikowane i zaproponowano w odniesieniu do nich konkretne korekty.

Celem artykułu jest omówienie instytucji bezpodstawnego wzbogacenia jako źródła zobowiązania, znanego już w prawie rzymskim, któremu nieobce były najistotniejsze związane z nim problemy, a także sposoby rozwiązywania tych problemów. Autorka, mając świadomość złożoności zagadnień związanych z bezpodstawnym wzbogaceniem oraz problemów, których może nastręczać stosowanie tej instytucji, skupia się na przedstawieniu pojęcia oraz cech charakterystycznych instytucji bezpodstawnego wzbogacenia jako zobowiązania. Zostały one wymienione w jednym tylko przepisie – art. 405 Kodeksu cywilnego, jednak na pozór oczywista regulacja zawiera w sobie kilka niewypowiedzianych wprost elementów, które trzeba uwzględnić przy ocenie, czy doszło do bezpodstawnego wzbogacenia. Autorka zwraca uwagę na to, że o szczególnym charakterze bezpodstawnego wzbogacenia świadczą przede wszystkim pozytywne przesłanki jego powstania. Przesłankami tymi są: uzyskanie korzyści przez jedną osobę, uzyskanie tej korzyści kosztem innej osoby, związek między wzbogaceniem a zubożeniem oraz brak podstawy prawnej wzbogacenia, przy czym należy nadmienić, że Kodeks cywilny nie stanowi nic na temat przesłanki związku. Przesłankami nie będą natomiast wiedza ani wola osoby wzbogaconej. Odpowiedzialność wzbogaconego z tego tytułu będzie w takim razie obciążała go bez względu na to, co było przyczyną uzyskania przez niego korzyści majątkowej.