Sądowa kontrola sprawowana przez sądy administracyjne obejmuje swym zasię­giem legalność aktów i czynności organów administracji publicznej. Wyłączona spod niej jest więc kontrola działalności organów innych władz. Pojawiają się jednak przypadki, w których sądy administracyjne, powołując się na tak zwaną wykładnię prokonstytucyjną, próbują objąć swą kognicją także akty, czynności czy bezczynność organów władzy ustawodawczej i sądowniczej. Za to, mimo że zgodnie z Konsty­tucją RP władzę wykonawczą, utożsamianą przez doktrynę z wykonywaniem administracji publicznej, sprawują Prezydent RP oraz Rada Ministrów, w orzecz­nictwie dominuje linia, zgodnie z którą akty Prezydenta stanowiące realizację jego prerogatyw, nie podlegają kognicji sądów administracyjnych. Autor polemizuje z tą linią orzecznictwa.
Przedmiotem rozważań są także zgłaszane w piśmiennictwie postulaty dotyczące powierzenia sądom administracyjnym kontroli decyzji wydawanych w sprawach z zakresu ubezpieczeń społecznych, a także powołania odrębnego sądownictwa w sprawach podatkowych czy szerzej finansowych. Także tym postulatom Autor mocno się im przeciwstawia.

Przedsiębiorcy działający na rynku mogą zyskać status przedsiębiorstwa społecznego, jeśli realizują cele społeczne oraz wspierają swym działaniem osoby zagrożone wykluczeniem społecznym poprzez ich reintegrację zawodową i społeczną. Uzyskanie statusu przedsiębiorstwa społecznego pozwala na skorzystanie przez podmiot z właściwych form wsparcia finansowego na rozwój i podnoszenie konkurencyjności organizacji. Przedmiotem artykułu jest analiza istniejących rozwią­zań prawnych w zakresie pozyskania wsparcia finansowego. Analizie poddano formy wsparcia kierowane do różnych grup osób zagrożonych wykluczeniem. Z rozważań zawartych w artykule wynika, iż zaproponowane instrumenty pozostają niedopasowane do potrzeb tej grupy przedsiębiorstw. Dodatkowo w publikacji zawarto propozycje zmian prawnych, które wprowadzone pozwolą na wzmocnie-nie pozycji przedsiębiorstw społecznych na rynku.

Celem opracowania jest ocena instytucji wysłuchania publicznego w procesie stanowienia ustaw. W opracowaniu podjęto problem, czy instytucja wysłuchania publicznego stanowi realny czy iluzoryczny instrument w procesie stanowienia prawa? W rozważaniach uwzględniono z jednej strony zagadnienia teoretyczne dotyczące instytucji wysłuchania publicznego, z drugiej zaś – przedstawiono praktykę ustrojową wysłuchania publicznego (dane statystyczne dotyczące zastosowania tej instytucji w V–IX kadencji Sejmu RP). Praktyka ustrojowa w tym okresie pokazuje, że komisje sejmowe dość wstrzemięźliwie korzystają z tego uprawnienia. Od wejścia w życie regulacji dotyczącej tej instytucji obejmującej okres od V do końca IX kadencji Sejmu na 5855 projektów ustaw przeprowadzono zaledwie 34 wysłuchania publiczne obejmujące 46 projektów ustaw. Stanowiło to podstawę do sformułowania wniosków końcowych i postulatów de lege ferenda.

Ustawa o ekonomii społecznej kwalifikuje spółdzielnie socjalne, rolnicze spółdziel-nie produkcyjne oraz spółdzielnie pracy, w tym spółdzielnie inwalidów i spół-dzielnie niewidomych, do katalogu zamkniętego podmiotów ekonomii społecznej. W konsekwencji spółdzielnie te mogą uzyskać status przedsiębiorstwa społecznego. Skutkuje to rozszerzeniem celu spółdzielni o reintegrację społeczną i zawodową osób zagrożonych wykluczeniem społecznym lub świadczenie usług społecznych. Realizacja tych celów następuje obok prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej przez spółdzielnię. Spółdzielnia może świadczyć usługi społeczne zarówno na rzecz członków spółdzielni jak i na rzecz innych osób. Kolejnym skutek uzyskania statusu przedsiębiorstwa społecznego polega na nadaniu działalności gospodarczej spółdzielni charakteru not for profit. Ten charakter działalności gospodarczej nie kores­ponduje jednak z celem spółdzielni pracy i rolniczych spółdzielni produkcyjnych.

It is the intention of the author of this article to present the theoretical and legal views of Sigmund Freud and Emil Durkheim and to place them in the context of classical texts on political-legal theory. Both thinkers, rather associated with sociology or psychology than with law, treated law as one of the most important reference points in their social concepts. In both cases, we are dealing with the treatment of the social order as transcendent to the empirical individual, and at the same time created by society. At the same time, the law is supposed to impede the emancipation of the individual and to allow the individual to have a real influence on the creation of power structures. At the same time, despite numerous analyses of the theoretical-legal views of these thinkers in the European scientific literature, this is the first such analysis in Polish. In addition to presenting Freud’s and Durkheim’s views, it opens up the possibility of not only situating them among political-legal theories, but also points to perspectives on the operationalisation of these theories – as well as their possible social implications. To this end, the following article juxtaposes their theories with the traditions of legal positivism as represented by Hans Kelsen and Herbert L.A. Hart – two authors who were inspired by Freud and Durkheim respectively.

The purpose of the article is analyse how essential the issue of personal data protection is in the procedure of leading a collective dispute. In order to make some findings in this matter, the dogmatic and legal method was primarily used and the provisions of the Act on Resolving Collective Disputes and the GDPR were analysed in the first place. The findings made lead to the conclusion that despite the fact that the dispute itself is collective, both parties (both the trade union and the employer) process a range of personal data during the dispute. Due to the specifics of the procedure and the fact that the Act was essentially created before the GDPR came into force and it was not amended for the inclusion of broadly understood requirements for the correctness of the processing of personal data, it is necessary to rely on general principles resulting from the GDPR, and a certain indicator of it may be opinions issued by the PDPO.
The issue raised in this paper has so far been included in certain statements from the doctrine, but its practical significance and importance for social partners who execute their constitutional right to lead collective disputes fully justify further research in this direction as well as the fact of findings resulting from that research reaching various target groups (apart from the above-mentioned social partners, representatives of the judicature and science should also be reached).

The article concerns the safety needs and the private security sector. Its content is focused on three questions: 1) what are safety needs; 2) what distinguishes safety needs; and 3) what results from the knowledge about safety needs? These three questions concern relationship between safety needs and the private security sector. Their content shows the way of understanding needs, particularly safety needs, their functioning and examples. It also indicates the features safety needs that decide their differences from other needs. The article ends conclusions that concern the private security sector.

The paper analyses challenging the validity of an employment contract by the Social Insurance Institution, in the course of a control of correctness of the determination of the social insurance obligation that results from the employee status. In the first part, the author analyses the problem of a fictitious contract and acting against the law or with the intention to circumvent the law, or contrary to the principles of community life. He indicates documents and information that are most often requested by ZUS, and describes the situations which are most thoroughly examined. In the next part, following issues are examined: the existence of an employment relation, salary, employing relatives, concluding the employment contract in order to register for insurance purposes and the situation of pregnant employees or employees shortly before retirement. The paper is concluded with the most frequent arguments for, or against the existence of employment and the most advantageous practices to litigate with the ZUS are described.

The study discusses the principles of awarding benefits under the Company Social Benefits Fund (original Polish name: Zakładowy Fundusz Świadczeń Społecznych) from the point of view of legitimacy of the processing of personal data. The con-ducted analysis covers the present legal framework in force in Poland, taking the European Union law – GDPR – into consideration. Given the local specificity of the institution in question, the article does not include references to regulations adopted in other countries. The article proposes two theses. One is that the award-ing of benefits under the CSBF with the participation of representatives of the stakeholder community, especially in the area of hardship benefits, should be based on anonymised applications. Documents proving the circumstances acting as the grounds to apply for a benefit to be true should be verified by an employer’s authorised representative in charge of employee welfare initiatives. The other thesis is that copies of documents proving the legitimacy of application for a social benefit, especially in the area of hardship benefits, should be kept by the data controller – meaning the employer – for a period during which Polish tax authori-ties and Social
Insurance Institution (ZUS) may verify the legitimacy of application of the impost law. In this case, this refers to the practice of non-payment of the tax on the awarded benefits and the social insurance contributions. The conclusions the said theses lead to are significant to the practical application of law, and because they are controversial, they may pave the way for a further academic discourse.

Social labour inspectorate, as a special form of unionised representation of employees’ interests, has the right to control employers in the field of their compliance with the provisions of the labour law in place. Exercising this controlling function involves the need for a social labour inspector to access the information and docu-ments that may contain personal data of employees. The study advances a thesis that a social labour inspector is an entity processing personal data of employees on behalf of a company trade union organisation – who is the controller of these data, and the grounds for the processing of personal data of employees are the relevant provisions of the GDPR. The theses proposed in the study aim to challenge the Constitutional Tribunal’s standpoint regarding a social labour inspector’s right to obtain personal data. The problems addressed in the study have not been a sub-ject of the existing views of legal academics and commentators, nor have they been covered in the established line of judicial decisions yet.

The object of the study the findings of which are presented in this article is the written statements of reasons of selected resolutions issued by the Polish Supreme Court and the dissenting opinions submitted in opposition to them. The situation of this type constitutes a relationship of two or more standpoints regarding a problem presented to a bench, referred to in the text as an opposition. The aim of the article is to offer a typology of opposition that can be reconstructed as a result of a dissenting opinion being submitted. It encompasses axiological oppositions in the strong sense and interpretation oppositions (axiological in the weak sense). Axiological oppositions in the strong sense take the form of unipolar or bipolar opposites. The examined group of resolutions has given grounds to also isolate doctrinal disputes as well as disputes over the legal nature of a given institution. The article, however, focuses only on axiological opposites. The cognitive value of the conducted analyses lies: (1) in the identification of the limited role of interpretation guidelines on the level of written statements of reasons, and (2) in the identification of the dissimilarity of situations where a votum separatum becomes an expression of an equal standpoint on the grounds of ius interpretandi considered in broad terms and situations where a votum separatum is a dissenting opinion not so much against a decision that has been made but against the legal regulation that has required this decision to be as it is.

The subject matter of this paper is the analysis of the phenomenon of subordination
as a manifestation of the relationships between political authority and society and of the phenomenon of equality as an inherent right of individuals. The author has made an attempt to examine the mutual relationships between the two phenomena, especially from the perspective of the impact on the establishment of relationships between political authority and society.

The paper tries to conceptualize the social and structural change that self-governments underwent during systemic transformation in Poland. First, the situation of professional self-governments before the systemic transformation is discussed, including their liquidation at the onset of communist rule in Poland as well as the beginnings of their revival at the end of it, which was described as the first wave of development of professional self-governments. Both the reasons for liquidation, as well as revival of professional-self-governments are described. After this we discuss the second wave of this development, covering the first years after the fall of communism up to the adoption of the Polish Constitution of 1997, which regulated the status of professional self-government in the “social constitution”. Next we analyse the third wave of development of professional self-governments, which lasted until 2001 and was a portent of the conflict discussed at the end of the article between two ways of understanding what professional self-governments are and what role they should play (one focused on social constitution and other on efficiency). It is argued that from 2001 onwards professional self-governments have been treated more like a tool of effective governance (and very often – as something that hinders this governance) rather than an expression of civic society.

The article discusses the issue of the conflict between social roles in the professional activity pursued by so-called liberal professions, especially by researchers. It offers a normative approach to the issue as covered in the Code of Ethics for Research Workers (Kodeks Etyki Pracownika Naukowego) and in the Code of Good Practices in Universities (Dobre Praktyki w Szkołach Wyższych). Emphasis has been placed on the types of conflicts and on their significance to the ethical aspect of professional
activity, accompanied by a simultaneous reminder that conflict tends to be a factor contributing to the axiological balance in society and to society’s efficiency.

Przedmiotem drugiej części artykułu (pierwsza część została opublikowana w numerze 1/2019 „Krytyki Prawa”) pozostaje analiza wpływu wzorców kultury, m. in. takich jak uczciwość, dialog społeczny, eliminacja przemocy, na formowanie stosunków między władzą a członkami społeczności państwowej.

Academics and faculty members are entangled in many interests. Selfless science for cognitive purposes is a thing of the past. There is a constant game of the power over knowledge. Apart from scientists, many entities with various interests are participants of the game. They are: politicians, officials, academic administration, research sponsors, accreditation agencies, publishers, resort scientific institutes, industry, business. The scientists themselves sometimes work for the truth and sometimes they work for profit; they create knowledge which is public property, or when they are employed commercially, e.g. by the industry, they create private knowledge. This paper presents five factors which may contribute to restricting the cognitive autonomy of the scientists.